Catan Minyak

The main thing is to begin.

The statement that the composition doesn't need scientific and metodologic explanation is more than strange because usually the composition of any kind of figurative art (including oil painting) is thought of beforehand. The basic rules of studying drawing and painting are very closely connected
with the laws of the discipline.
A. Deineka

1. Stop looking at modern art and stop loving it. Modern bright colors and hue contrasts destroy the subtle vision of the painter who risks to study classical painting in our time.
2. Many painters get an energy charge from music. Stop listening to any modern music and begin listening only to classical music. Try to begin loving it.
3. Brushes. You should have many brushes so that not to lose time washing them while working. Take a new brush for every new mix. Use round kolinsky brushes, #1 to #10. To cover larger surfaces, you will need a few #20 to #35 brushes. For final strokes PRIPLAVLENIYE (final blending) you will need a few very soft round and flat average size squirrel brushes. Brushes should be treated very carefully. After every session they should be washed in turpentine and after that in warm water with soap.
4. The palette must be made of hard dark wood, best of all, of pear. After work wash the palette with turpentine and scrape it with a razor. Before work wipe the palette with linseed oil.
5. The canvas should be primed additionally a few more times and in conclusion it should be ground with fine sandpaper. After that the canvas should be scraped with a razor to remove the canvas texture till smooth dead surface similar to the egg's surface is achieved.
6. It is very important to have objects for still lifes in the studio. Don't be stingy at garage sales and flea markets, you may regret it later.
7. The
drawing is made on paper life-size to the smallest details. Then it is transferred to the canvas by carbon-paper. After that the drawing is outlined with brown ink because the first oil layer - IMPRIMATURA (transparent coat that is equal to the middle tone of largest, lightest object in painting) - will wash away the pencil, but the ink will remain visible almost through the last layers.
8. Before each new layer the canvas (ideally dried during 7 weeks) is carefully wiped with a half of an onion (in order to prepare the dried surface to absorb better) and then with linseed oil. After that the canvas is wiped with a soft piece of cloth.
9. The lacquer for IMPRIMATURA is made of 2% of dry DAMAR CRYSTALS and 98% of turpentine. The lacquer for painting is made of 5-10% of dry resin and 90-95 % of turpentine. A couple of lavender oil drops are added directly to the oil-can. Scientists say lavender oil stimulates the brain. However, I think that old masters added it to eliminate the heavy turpentine smell. The lacquer for the final step consists of 30% of DAMAR CRYSTALS, 3% of linseed oil, and 67% of turpentine.
10. The basic set of paints is the following: "Rembrandt" oil colors: Flake White, Yellow Ochre Light, Red Ochre, Burnt Umber, Raw Umber Ivory and Lamp Black (7 Basic Colors), and 4 extra colors (when necessary) which I use in the last layers: Flake Yellow (instead of it also can be used Cadmium Yellow Deep), Madder Lake Deep, Chinese Vermilion, Prussian Blue. But be careful, use these last 4 colors very sparingly.
11. IMPRIMATURA, or the first paint layer. The canvas is covered with a liquid mixture based on Red Ochre, Yellow Ochre Light and Ivory Black (the mixture should have an olive hue).
12. The shadow PODMALYOVOK (the process of creating intermediate layers) is made with Burnt Umber in two layers (2nd and 3rd layers). In the second layer all details are made excluding the texture. In the third layer LESSIROVKA of the main tone masses is made with a big brush.
13. The dead layer - the fourth PODMALYOVOK - is made with white lead, light ocher, red ocher, and burnt bone. The aim of this PODMALYOVOK is penumbra. The picture must look as if its objects were lit with moonlight - olive cold gray color. Colors are applied thickly, half a tone higher, shadows are very transparent, half a tone lower.
14. The first and the second TEL'NII (flesh tones: main life colors) PODMALYOVOK (5th and 6th layers). The first TEL'NII PODMALYOVOK is made half a tone lighter and two tones lighter in colors; and half a tone darker and two tones lighter in shadows. The same is true of the second TEL'NII (?body?) PODMALYOVOK.
15. LESSIROVKA - the seventh layer: details of textures, thickly applied highlights, bright reflections, and signature. In this layer you may use additional paints: Prussian blue, red cinnabar, yellow flake (cadmium yellow deep), madder lake deep.

Observation is a very important aspect of learning to paint in the classical style. To master the technique, it is best to watch a master paint for long periods of time. In the the contemporary system of teaching, the student sits down right off with a handful of brushes and a palette of paint, and starts slapping it on the canvas, while the instructor looks on and makes comments or suggestions now and then. It is therefore, very important for those wishing to seriously pursue classical technique to just watch for a while.

 

Drawing on paper.

 

Back to "drawing"

Transferred to the painting.

Back to "outlined"

IMPRIMATURA, or the first paint layer.

 

Back to "IMPRIMATURA"

The 1 shadow. (2nd paint layer)

Back to "PODMALYOVOK"

The 2 shadow. (3rd paint layer)

 

Back to "PODMALYOVOK"

The dead layer. (4th paint layer)

Back to "The dead layer"

The first body. (5th paint layer)

 

Back to " the first body"

The second body. (6th paint layer)

Back to "the second body"

Details of textures. (7th paint layer)

Back to "LESSIROVKA

A Few words about Flemish technique.
I was classically trained and have dedicated most of my time to studying and emulating the 7 layer techniques of the 16th century Flemish Masters such as Rubens, Van Duke and Snyders, which is practiced by very few artists today as it is no longer taught in art schools .
Comparing any 7 layer piece by the Masters of the 16-17th century with the realistic painting of some artists of the 19 and even 20th centuries, you will become convinced that despite their age, the older ones are in better condition in regard to the colors and surface of the ground (prime) layer and the varnish.
Very many paintings in which artists did not use the classic Flemish Masters' techniques of 7 layers, did not pass the test of time. We see how works of Russian "Peredvizhniki" of 19th century and even the impressionists of the 20th century are becoming gray and loosing their original condition and quality. The main damage was caused by the refusal to use the optical mixture of 7 layers, in which every dried layer is responsible for special color and tone.
The artists little by little started to use physical mixture of the colors (very often incompatible) right off the palette, as well as a variety of new pigments, attractive but unfortunately not time tested. For example fantastic colors in the paintings of Rubens and Snyders are made with only 3 basic colors: Flake Yellow, Vermilion and Prussian Blue. Black, Flake White, Ochre Light and Red were not considered to be colors because artists performed the preliminary work with them until the final layers.
The experiments with the different new varnishes also didn't prove to be any better. The reading of the treatises by Leonardo Da Vinci and other old masters, visits to the main museums and depositories of Russia and many museums in Italy and USA convinced me that I'm right in the use of the traditional classic 7 layer technique of oil painting.
I use linen, cotton or hardboard , primed with my own preparation of Flake White and linseed oil. I prepare varnish using lavender oil, a recipe used by many old masters. I paint with kolinsky brushes (from #0 to #30) using a pearwood palette. The optical mixture of the colors allows me to achieve the pearl illusion of reality plus warranty for centuries of the quality of the surface from different kinds of losses such as the change of colors, dimming or cracking in the ground and varnish. The artist Engr guaranteed to his clients this quality for 300 years. I also can guarantee not less than that.

Kolaj, Assemblaj dan Combine Painting

PENGOLAHAN BAHAN DALAM TEKNIK BERKARYA
Terdapat berbagai cara yang boleh digunakan untuk menjadikan sesuatu karya itu menjadi bahan campuran. Dalam pemilihan bahan-bahan tersebut seseorang artis itu perlulah tahu jenis dan teknik yang dikehendakinya. Pengetahuan tentang nilai bahan-bahan dan caranya mungkin didapati samada dipelajari dari buku ataupun melalui sendiri pengalaman menghasilkan sesuatu yang baru.
Kekuatan sesuatu bahan itu juga perlu diketahui oleh pengkarya itu bagi memastikan samada ianya mempunyai ketahanan yang kuat ataupun lemah . Di sini terdapat sedikit sejarah bagaimana permulaan dan beberapa teknik yang selalu digunakan di dalam menghasilkan sesebuah karya.
Teknik tersebut ialah college,yang merupakan permulaan kepada kesemua teknik yang hadir selepasnya.Berikutan itu lahirlah seperti teknik-teknik seperti Assemblage, Combine Painting, Fibric, Fumage, Brulage, Decoupage, Affiches Laceres, Dechirage, Froissage, Frottage dan bermacam-macam lagi. Disini,kajian tentang media campuran ini hanya menitikberatkan terhadap beberapa pengolahan sahaja.


A.ii.i Collage
Collage (kolaj) ialah di mana dapat ditafsirkan sebagai satu permulaan seni catan moden yang menggunakan bahan-bahan yang berbentuk kertas yang terkenal di dalam karya Pablo Picasso. Papier de college ini telah mula digunakan dan telah mula menjadi satu seni yang baru. Dari tahun 1906-1914 merupakan satu era di dalam seni dengan adanya karya-karya yang membezakan dari segi pengolahan yang tidak tunduk kepada tradisi.
Ia merupakan satu era yang penting di mana ia merupakan zaman era moden yang memisahkan di antara yang lama dan baru. Picasso dan Braque merupakan pengkarya yang disebut-sebut sebagai pembawa kepada perubahan ini.
Selepas Cezanne mengenengahkan konsep 'Construction' terhadap 'nature' dengan meletakkan bentuk-bentuk kon, bulat segi empat dan segi tiga sebagai mewakili nature iaitu menganggap apa yang dilihat kepada nature ini boleh dibentukkan sebagai satu keadaan bergeometrik, sebagai contohnya pokok menjadi kon, rumah menjadi segi empat.
Bagaimanapun Picasso dan Braque pula mendapati ia adalah sebagai satu jalan pembentukan 'collage'. Mereka kemudiannya membuat eksprementasi yang dikenali sebagai 'Analytic Cubism' iaitu gagasan dari Cezanne, yang kemudiannya dimasukkan pula keratan akhbar, tiket, urat-urat kayu dan berbagai lagi kesan jalinan di dalam karya mereka. Mereka memasukkan sesuatu 'form' itu tanpa mengubah akan bentuk asalnya dan kekal sebagai bentuk dan rupa sendiri.

Picasso menjelaskan bagaimana ia bermula dengan kolaj ini sebagai,
" It was a small painting, a still life serrounded by an oral form made rope, that for the first time introduced as a tangble element a small piece of oil cloth resembling chair canning".
Ia menambah lagi,
" there is no such thing as any material being worthing or unworthy as a mean of creative expression, as long the artist in fuses it with creative feeling".
Jadi collage ini adalah sebagai satu permulaan dalam seni catan moden akibat perasaan ingin tahu para pelukis di dalam mencari sesuatu yang baru. Imej-imej yang dilekatkan itu masih lagi menunjukkan akan sifat-sifat asal mereka.
Selalunya kolaj ini hanya menggunakan satu lapisan atau nipis seperti keratan akhbar, tiket dan sebagainya. Kadangkala kewujudan mereka hanya melalui tampakan mata dan mendatar. Permukaan yang selalu dikolaj itu kebanyakannya masih bersifat 2D.

A.ii.ii Assemblage
Tidak seperti kolaj, ianya lebih 'berbentuk' dan 'bersifat' kepada kualiti relief. Penyusunan dari welding besi, gum antara permukaan, objek yang dijumpai (sebagai contoh ) telah dimasukkan bersama menjadi satu karya.
Artis seperti Schwitters, Merz dan Dubuffets telah memulakan karya-karya yang berbentuk Assemblage. Sebagai contoh mereka mengambil bahan-bahan yang terbuang dan tidak dipakai diambil dan di simpan yang kemudiannya di 'kompos' kembali menjadi satu karya. Sebagai contoh seperti akhbar, stamp, tali, kayu, besi, plastik, ( Sekadar menyebut beberapa bahan ) yang digunakan untuk menghasilkan sesuatu.
Pembuatannya oleh Charlotte Weilder, "He spread flour and water over the paper, then moved and shulted and manipulated his scraps of paper around in the paint while the paper was wet. With his finger tips he worked little piece of crumpled paper into the wet surface;also spread tints of water colour or gouches around to get variation in shadings of tone".
Manakala kepada Max Ernst pula ialah kepada eksplorasi,
" the fortuitous ecounter upon a non suitable plane of two mutually distant realities".
Menghampiri kepada seni ialah ia berbentuk cembung dan lebih kepada eksplorasi teknikal dan keputusan yang lebih tegas terhadap pengalaman seseorang itu.
Assemblage ini ialah turutan kepada perkembangan collage yang telah dimajukan dalam seni dengan penambahan-penambahan dan penerokaan baru dengan menjadikan sesuatu catan itu lebih kepada relief. Menggunakan bahan-bahan yang dikutip atau jumpa yang kemudiannya di kompos'kan kembali.

A.ii.iii Combine Painting
Seni ini telah diasaskan oleh dua orang pelukis Barat iaitu Robert Rauschenberg dan Jasper Johns.Ianya adalah lanjutan dari seni yang telah dibawa oleh golongan 'Dada'. Mereka ini termasuk di dalam 'Pop Art' dan lebih dikenali sebagai 'Neo-dada'. Seni ini memperlihatkan akan pertemuan dan percantuman antara seni 2D dan 3D. Seni yang telah dibawa oleh golongan dadaisme juga berkemunculan seperti ini tetapi masih lagi berbentuk relatif tetapi seni kombinasi ini telah terkeluar dari peraturan catan secara total.
Rauschenberg secara berani telah memaparkan seni sebegini dalam 'Canyon' di mana ia memasukkan objek-objek persekitaran yang lebih berbentuk seperti burung dan bantal. Begitu juga dengan karyanya'First landing Jump', dengan menggunakan tayar kayu berserta objek lain. Begitu juga karya-karya oleh Jasper Johns dalam siri 'Target' nya. Tetapi melalui pengkaryaan oleh Jasper John ini, kebanyakan karyanya lebih mementingkan teknikal seperti 'casting'.
Seni ini yang bersekitaran permulaannya di tahun 50an telah berkembang hinggalah ke masakini. Objek dari persekitaran samada dari 'man-made' mahupun 'natural object' dikombinasikan sekali meliputi seni yang tak terbatas.
Kesimpulannya, seni 'combine' ini telah hadir setelah penerokaan oleh golongan Kubisme, Dadaisme yang seterusnya memperluaskan seni berbentuk 'Collage' sehinggalah ke seni Kontemporari.
Selain daripada kelahiran golongan yang mengamalkan seni campuran ini, perkara yang berkaitan dengan teknikal juga penting di dalam pembuatannya. Terdapat beberapa \teknikm dan keberkesanannya sewaktu menjalani proses.

Kajian Teori

Kajian Teori Yang Berkaitan
Di dalam catan mixed media para pengkarya mencipta simbol-simbol baru untuk menghubungkan karya-karya seni moden dengan ikonografi tempatan. Mereka
menggunakan dan memetik motif-motif budaya setempat sebagai kajian mereka untuk mendapatkan idea atau untuk mengupaskan isu-isu yang akan diketengahkan oleh mereka. Contohnya seperti Choong Kam Kow dan Din Omar yang memetik motif-motif budaya permakanan tempatan sebagai Subjek kajian. Choong Kam Kow menghasilkan catan-catan yang menggabungkan bentuk kuih tradisi, dengan memberi penekanan kepada pembungkusannya yang dapat dianggap sebagai simbol kepada pembungkusannya yang dapat dianggap sebagai simbol kepada konsep kesatuan dalam kebudayaan Malaysia. Sebilangan pengkarya mixed media karya mereka bertunjangkan seni Barat yang kelihatan seperti ekpresionisme dan surealisme contohnya karya oleh Tan Chin Kuan di dalam karya “Tragic of Blue Night” (1991).


e) Jenis Bahan
Bahan-bahan yang digunakan biasanya pelbagai bahan yang boleh digunakan di dalam catan mixed media seperti alumunium, prospek, kaca lutsinar , kayu, plastik, bahan-bahan buangan dan lain-lain lagi. Bahan tadi digunakan oleh pengkarya untuk mengolahkan karya-karya mereka . Contohnya karya Zulkifli Yusof sebagai contohnya mengutamakan isu perpecahan kaum menerusi buah-buah catur. Kebanyakan karya Zukifli Yusof bahan-bahannya mixed media.

e.i) Apa Itu Bahan ( Material)
Bahan adalah sesuatu objek yang dikenali samada dari segi rupa dan bentuk atau yang menjalani pembuatan prosesnya. Di dalam seni bahan campuran, samada sesuatu bahan itu telah menjalani proses atau masih kepada pengekalan identitinya tertakluk kepada bagaimana pengkarya itu berkarya.
Sejajar dengan kemajuan, pengkarya telah memproses sesuatu bahan itu sebagai contoh menggunakan plaster, woodfiler, serbuk kayu, gam, plastik, elemen semulajadi dan sebagainya sehinggalah kepada bahan-bahan terbuang dan persekitaran untuk menghasilkan seni mereka. Hasil dari proses artis itulah wujudnya karya berbentuk bahan campuran.
Di sini terdapat beberapa bahan yang telah diklasifikasikan.Bahan itu ialah seperti bahan yang berbentuk elemen fizikal, dimana dalam proses pengkaryaan, sebarang medium diperlukan sebagai alat penyokong seperti air, minyak atau berbentuk ‘chemical’ ataupun masih mengekalkan rupa dan ciri-cirinya.
Bahan-bahan boleh dikategorikan kepada beberapa kategori seperti :
i. Bahan pepejal -seperti batu, limestone atau marble.
ii.Bahan Organik -seperti kayu atau 'earth object'.
iii.Bahan Industri -seperti besi, tembaga, perak, proses dari mesin atau jentera,
Syntetic seperti bahan tiruan,plastik, glass, prospect bersifat lutsinar.
iv.Bahan Hybrid -yang terhasil dari percampuran antara satu sama lain.
v. Bahan Chemical -seperti bahan mengandungi asid, pencampuran dari
koleksi lab.
e.ii) Cara Memilih Bahan
Dalam pemilihan bahan itu terdapat dua kategori iaitu :
i- Fugivite : penghasilannya menerusi terus keatas permukaan atau karya. Selalunya bahan ini tidak dapat bertahan lama, dimana nilainya senang jatuh. Ini bermaksud pengkarya tidak mendalami lagi sesuatu sifat bahan dari segi ketahanan.
ii- Permenant : Selalunya hasilan ini berbentuk lebih tahan dari segi masa, pembuatannya mengambil kira ke atas aspek nilai yang tinggi dan menjalani pemerosesan yang berkesan. Pengkarya yang sebegini selalunya menjalani ujikaji terhadap bahan sebelum memasukkannya ke dalam karya. Di dalam pembentukan sesuatu bahan itu samada dalam bentuk 'man made', ‘ready made' atau, 'natural object' terdapat sifatnya yang tersendiri mengenai jalinannya.
Bila melihat kepada 'texture' berbentuk 'visual' ianya hasil dari pertukangan tangan atau pembuatan dari pengkarya dengan corak atau dekoratif. Melalui kesan yang wujud secara spontan melahirkan jalinan yang tidak disengajakan melalui kesan pembentukan tampak atau gerakbalas pengkarya. Ianya juga boleh dihasilkan melalui alat mekanikal seperti silkscreen, komputer grafik atau foto dan berkaitan dengan seni ini.
Bentukan yang terhasil juga boleh dikenalpasti sebagai yang berbentuk 'textile texture'. Ianya terhasil dari bahan semulajadi (earth) seperti daun, kayu, ranting, pasir atau perlakuan oleh seseorang itu seperti menganyam, mengikat manik dan sebagainya. Bila memperbincangkan penghasilan karya sebegini selalunya pengkarya memanfaatkan kepada apa yang telah ada dari bentukan asalnya. Pengkarya juga mendapat jalinan melalui pengubahsuaian dari kreativitinya sendiri melalui proses geraklaku atau penyudahan terhadap sesuatu bahan itu tidak kira apa jua yang difikirkan sesuai. Penyusunan terhadap sesuatu penyusunan atau perletakan juga akan mendatangkan hasil dari pembuatan 'textile texture' ini.
Apabila memperkatakan memgenai bahan campuran, tidak dapat dinafikan kekuatan bahan yang telah menjadi satu tradisi lama dalam pembuatan karya. Warna khususnya yang terhasil dari alam semulajadi, proses dari industri seperti cat minyak, arkrylik atau tempera. Semuanya ini adalah bahan. Dari sini jelaslah bahan itu terdiri dari berbagai-bagai elemen dan komponennya yang tersendiri. Dalam mendefinisikannya telah kelihatan ianya bersifat universal. Terpulanglah pengkarya untuk menghasilkannya.

Kajian Catan

A. KAJIAN LITERATUR

A.i Latar Belakang Sejarah

a) Catan

Pada zaman Mesolitik (15000 SM hingga 10000SM) merupakan zaman yang terdapat lukisan-lukisan prasejarah. Lukisan itu menggambarkan kehidupan dan aktiviti harian mereka. Karya-karya mereka pada zaman itu telah mula memperlihatkan corak-corak yang menambahkan lagi kesan kuasa ghaib. Media yang digunakan pada masa itu ialah darah binatang hasil dari pemburuan. Darah tersebut menghasilkan warna merah. Jelaga lemak haiwan pula untuk menghasilkan warna hitam. Manakala biji-biji kuning yang ditumbuk untuk menghasikan warna kuning. Warna hijau pula terdapat daripada tumbuh-tumbuhan.
Begitu juga dengan zaman Neolitik hasil karya mereka hampir serupa yang digunakan oleh manusia zaman Mesolitik iaitu darah untuk menghasilkan warna merah, Manganam oksid, jelaga lemak dan arang untuk mendapatkan warna hitam. Manakala bijian yang dihancurkan dengan batu untuk dicampurkan pula dengan darah haiwan, madu,tumbuh-tumbuhan dan lemak haiwan boleh mendapatkan warna coklat dan jingga.
Pada zaman Renaisans seni catan berkembang pesat. Tokoh-tokoh pada masa itu seperti Leornardo Da Vinci, Rapheal dan Michealangelo merupakan pelukis-pelukis yang tersohor. Pada zaman itu ,subjek yang ditekankan iaitu agama. Ia terus menjadi penting di mana gambaran dan imej yang diilhamkan dari Bible atau cerita agama terus menguasai karya-karya pelukis. Kisah seperti “The Last Super” dan imej “Madonna and Child” merupakan subjek yang paling popular. Walaupun zaman Renaisans berakhir seni catan terus berkembang dengan pelbagai teknik dan teori dilakukan untuk menghasilkan catan yang baik dan berkualiti.

b) Catan Media Campuran
Karya catan ‘mixed media’ atau media campuran dikenali awal abad ke-20 iaitu aliran Kubisme yang dipelopori oleh Pablo Pissaco yang menggunakan bahan selain cat minyak, cat air atau akrilik yang biasanya digunakan untuk karya 2D. Beliau menggunakan potongan kertas atau kolaj untuk menghasilkan catannya yang bertajuk ‘Three Musicians’ antara 1910 hingga 1912.
Media campuran merupakan gabungan kolaj dan assemblaj sebagai teknik menghasilkan karya. Ia mengalihkan kongkongan realistik atau lukisan berupa dalam seni tampak.Karya awal ‘mixed media’ lebih menggunakan material seperti metal, barang kemas dan perhiasan berbanding kini ia terdiri dari gabungan pelbagai bahan. Bagaimana pun penggunaan aspek formalistik tetap sama.
Antara artis yang menggunakan ‘mixed media’ adalah Carlo Crivelli yang menggunakan kayu, kaca dan perhiasan untuk karyanya yang bertajuk St.Peter.Henry Matisse menggunakan cat gouche dan potongan kertas menghasilkan Sorrows Of The King pada 1952; mana kala Rauschenberg menghasilkan Reservoir pada 1961 dengan menggabungkan cat dan paku dalam karyanya.
Walaupun pada peringkat awal abad ke 20, para pengkarya masih berpegang kepada pengertian tradisional seni catan iaitu mereka masih lagi melukis figurative, alam sekitar dan alam benda.
Pertumbuhan pelbagai aliran seperti kubisme, surealisme dan pop art menyebabkan catan tradisional semakin ditinggalkan. Pengabungjalinan aliran ini membentuk aliran untuk membuat catan mixed media. Di dalam catan media campuran teknik yang digunakan banyak kolaj dan asemblaj. Ini dapat dilihat dengan adanya pameran yang terbesar di Museum of Modern Art (New York) yang mempamerkan karya asemblaj yang bertajuk “The Art of Asemblaj” pada tahun 1961 . Pada tahun itu merupakan satu langkah pembaharuan di dalam dunia catan di mana penghasilan karya ini adalah gabungan bahan catan dengan bahan lain. Kebanyakan bahan catan media campuran seperti aluminium, perspek, kaca, lutsinar, kayu, plastik,bahan-bahan buangan dan lain-lain lagi.
Sekumpulan daripada 30 dan 40 pengkarya untuk meneroka semula kebebasan membuat dan menghasilkan catan di mana teknik kolaj dan asemblaj digunakan dan ditekankan. Mereka tidak memutuskan dalam kesinambungan dari kubisme dan surealime.

Artis dari Negara Amerika iaitu Joseph Cornell merupakan contoh membuat dan mencipta penimbang kecil Puisi asemblaj di dalam sebuah kotak. Ini merupakan catan media campuran. Pada awal tahun30-an, beliau merupakan orang yang pertama yang masih berpendirian surelisme di Julien Levy Gallery di New York 1932. Beliau telah mengadakan pameran yang bertajuk “ Minutiae Glass Bells, Shadow Boy, Coup d’Oeil, Jouets Surealistes’.
Kerja Cornell (Plates 109-110) merupakan contoh sempurna titik-titik daripada William C. swseitz di buku perhubungan isu bersama “Art of Asemblaj” menunjukkan secara kias latihan daripada asemblaj mengumpulkan bahan dari aras hubungan formal dari persatuan pensyair menggunakan perkataan dan nombor secara rasmi . Perubahan turut mempengaruhi di dalam lukisan Abstrak Expressionis di mana sesuatu bentuk di dalam sederhana.
Di dalam aliran abstrak expresionis iaitu Alfonso Ossorio merupakan artis Filipina yang telah belajar dan bergaul dengan artis di sekolah New York dan memulakan teknik kolaj yang baru di akhir 50-an. Di dalam karyanya yang kalut pengumpulan daripada pelbagai bentuk dan bahan memperlengkapkan makna daripada kaligrafi rumit satu dijumpai dalam karya Pollock dan mempunyai tujuan yang sama untuk memperbaharui kepekaan seseorang artis. Ramai pengkarya menggunakan teknik asemblaj dalam karya mereka di akhir 50-an dan awal 60-an.

c) Sejarah seni catan media campuran tempatan.
Secara umunya terdapat tiga faktor yang telah mempengaruhi perkembangan seni catan moden di Malaysia iaitu factor pertama penjajahan Inggeris, penghijrahan bangsa dagang dan dtatus pendidikan. Sejarah seni catan moden Malaysia bermula pada awal sekitar 1930-an menrusi karya-karya Abdullah Ariff, Yong Mun Sen dan lain-lain . Stail yang baru dipersembahkan di dalam tradisi visual tempat dengan menggunakan kaedah perintis ini telah memperkenalkan pendekatan kaedah seni catan easel Barat untuk mempersembahkan subjek mereka sebelum ini. Perubahan stail dan konsep karya seni ini merupakan titik peralihan menandakan kelahiran seni lukis moden dengan penghasilan catan mixed media.

Perkembangan catan mixed telah dipelopori oleh ramai artis-artis catan pada tahun 1990-an. Pengolahan catan mixed media yang mencipta simbol-simbol baru yang menghubungkan karya-karya seni moden denga ikongrafi tempatan. Antaranya ialah Choong Kam Kow dan Din Omar yang memetik motif-motif budaya permakanan tempatan sebagai subjek kajian masing-masing. Choong Kam Kow menghasilkan catan yang mengabungkan bentuk kuih tradisi dengan memberi penekanan kepada pembungkusannya yang dapat dianggap simbol kepada konsep kesatuan dalam kebudayaan Malaysia. Ketupat dan Pulut panggang menjadi sebahagian dariapd abentuk yang diketengahkan. Sementara itu , Din Omar pula memindahkan imej dan bentuk nasi bungkus ke permukaan catan serta arcanya bagi mewakili isu-isu budaya tempatan dan antarabangsa. Pendekatannya ini, sebagaimana tercermin dalam ‘Nasi Bungkus:Antara Dua Hidangan” (1991) mirip kepada stail pop Art, khususnya seperti karya-karya Claes Oldenburg. Dengan menggunakan bentuk nasi bungkus , Din telah meperkayakan penggunaan simbol tempatan yang baru dalam dunia catan moden Malaysia.
Dekad 1990-an merupakan titik permulaan catan mixed media di mana ia menyaksikan kemunculan pelukis muda berpotensi dan berbakat besar yang lebih gemar kepada pengolahan mixed media dalam berkarya. Antara mereka iaitu Zulkifli Yusof, Mohd. Khalil Amran, Ahmad Hukri Mohamed, Tan Chin Kuan, Bayu Utomo Radjikin, Din Omar dan Raja Shariman.
Kebanyakan daripada pelukis muda ini menggarap permasalahan sosial menerusi karya-karya mereka. Zulkifli Yusof sebagai contohnya mengutamakan isu perpecahan kaum menrusi buah-buah catur yang menjadi kiasan kepada percaturan dan perbuatan kuasa. Manakala Tan Chin Kuan pula membicarakan isu-isu sosial menerusi imej-imej suasana negatif. Suatu trend dan fenomena baru bagi pelukis-pelukis muda ini ialah dari segi penghasilan karya-karya yang berukuran besar. Tidak dinafikan bahawa karya-karya mereka berukuran besar lazimnya mempunyai kesan yang kuat ke atas penontonnya. Itulah perkembangan catan mixed media.

Isu Pelajar

MENGAPA PELAJAR KURANG MINAT DENGAN PSV
1.0 PENGENALAN
1.1 SENI DAN MASYARAKAT
Dalam arus kemajuan Negara Malaysia masa kini yang semakin laju menuju matlamat menjadi Negara maju pada tahun 2020, aspek pembangunan teknologi amat diititik beratkan. Kemajuan teknologi merupakan antara pemacu utama sesebuah Negara dalam mempertingkatkan perkembangan ekonomi dan produktiviti Negara. Justeru itu antara langkah yang diambil oleh kerajaan adalah dengan memberi penekanan dari akar umbi lagi iaitu pada peringkat sekolah. Terutama sekali pada mata pelajaran sains dan matematik. Banyak dasar-dasar yang dibuat khas untuk subjek subjek sains dan matematik. Antaranya penggunaan bahasa inggeris dalam mata pelajaran tersebut. Selain itu bantuan komputer riba kapada guru mata pelajaran sains dan matematik. Pada peringkat pendidikan tinggi juga begitu. Kuota bagi aliran sains dan matematik lebih besar berbanding aliran lain.
Melihat kepada keadaan ini, situasinya seolah-olah mata pelajaran lain di sekolah dipinggirkan dan tidak diambil berat oleh kerajaan. Terutama sekali subjek pendidikan seni. Bukan hanya pihak kerajaan malahan masyarakat juga begitu. Lebih ironi, pelajar sekolah juga mengganggap subjek pendidikan seni sebgai subjek yang tidak penting ataupun subjek tempelan dan picisan. Mereka beranggapan bahawa pendidikan seni adalah subjek untuk pelajar yang lemah dalam pelajaran sahaja kerana seni dianggap sesuatu yang mudah dan kurang menyumbang kepada negara. Mereka tidak sepatutnya beranggapan begitu kerana seni wujud dalam diri setiap manusia dan mereka perlu kenal apakah itu pendidikan seni dengan lebih mendalam.
1.2 DEFINISI PENDIDIKAN SENI VISUAL
1.2.1 MAKNA PENDIDIKAN:
Umumnya bagi masyarakat Malaysia, pendidikan seni adalah pelajaran lukisan. Pandangan sempit beginilah yang seharusnya diubah dari kotak minda masyarakat. Sebelum mengenali seni kita apakah dia ’pendidikan’ terlebih dahulu. Terdapat pelbagai tafsiran bagi pendidikan. Menurut bangsa Yunani, pendidikan ialah ilmu menuntun anak. Masyarakat Jerman pula menganggap pendidikan sebagai ’erzhiehung’ iaitu membangkitkan kekuatan terpendam ataupun mengaktifkan kekuatan dan potensi anak. Selain itu pendidikan juga dikatakan sebagai usaha ataupun proses menitiskan sesuatu ke dalam diri manusia menurut Professor Syed Naquib al-Attas. Ulama dan cendekiawan Islam, Imam al-Ghazali pula mengatakan bahawa pendidikan ialah mengeluarkan perangai yang buruk yang ada pada manusia dan meyemai perangai dan sifat yang baik
Keseluruhannya pendidikan merupakan satu proses membimbing seseorang ke arah kebaikan dengan menyemai ilmu pengetahuan yang bermanfaat kepada indvidu tersebut dan orang disekelilingnya.
1.2.2 MAKNA SENI
Seni mempunyai pelbagai definisi yang diutarakan oleh tokoh terkenal dalam bidang seni. Menurut Frank Cizek, beliau menganggap seni adalah pernyataan diri seseorang. Maksud beliau adalah setiap individu dilahirkan dengan potensi seni. Persekitaran yang membentuk perkembangan seni individu. Linderman (1997) pula mengatakan bahawa seni adalah suatu bahasa yang mengandungi roh(nilai spiritual) yang dapat membenarkan seseorang menghasilkan sesuatu dan menghargainya. Seni membantu individu untuk mengenal personaliti diri dan potensi yang ada dalam diri seseorang. Menurut beliau lagi, seni merupakan suatu bahasa non verbal bagi manusia secara global.
Seni menurut acuan Islam merujuk kepada keindahan sama ada keindahan yang zahir mahupun keindahan yang batin. Seni adalah berasaskan kepada prinsip tauhid. Ini bersesuaian dengan hadis Nabi Muhammad s.a.w, ”Allah itu indah dan ia suka akan keindahan”. Seni adalah kesenangan estetik dan konsep keindahan menjadi pertemuan antara seseorang yang mempunyai ilmu pengetahuan terhadap mesej atau objek yang ditemui. Misalnya, bagi orang yang berilmu, jika menemui objek alam seperti bunga, serangga dan sebagainya ia akan melahirkan manifestasi pemikiran dan perasaan terhadap objek tersebut. Menurut Sidi Ghazalba,seorang seniman Islam menyatakan perkaitan antara seni dan Islam. Kata beliau, ”motif seni dalam Islam adalah ’kerana Allah untuk manusia’. Islam menghendaki supaya seni itu dilaksanakan berlandaskan akhlak Islam(nilai baik dan bebas dari nilai haram). Islam menyatakan yang indah itu baik dan baik adalah nilai akhlak(etika). Seterusnya akhlak dibentuk oleh ajaran al-Quran dan Hadith.
Menurut tokoh seni Malaysia pula misalnya, Syed Ahmad Jamal yang juga merupakan seorang guru mengatakan seni tampak ialah rupa dan jiwa. Bagi beliau, seni ialah sesuatu yang indah berlandaskan akal, etika, dan proses. Menurut Iberahim Hassan pula, seni merupakan rekod pencapaian manusia, manifestasi nilai dan kepercayaan menusia yang dijelmakan menerusi karya seni atau bentuk-bentuk tampak

1.2.3 APAKAH ITU PENDIDIKAN SENI
Iberahim Hassan (2000) menjelaskan pendidikan seni adalah suatu bidang ilmu yang boleh memberi pendidikan yang mana mencabar keupayaan individu membuat pemerhatian, pengamatan, penaakulan, pemilihan, pentafsiran dan penterjemahan idea kepada bahan atau media. Beliau turut menyatakan bahawa pendidikan seni merupakan satu disiplin ilmu yang melibatkan ketiga-tiga domain manusia.
2.0 SEJARAH PENDIDIKAN SENI DI MALAYSIA
Bermulanya pendidikan seni secara formal di negara kita,Malaysia adalah pada tahun
1816. Iaitu sekolah yang terawal mengajar matap pelajaran pendidikan seni ialah ‘Penang Free
School’ yang ditubuhkan pada tahun 1816. pada ketika itu seni diajar mengikut gaya pendidikan
barat.
Pendidikan seni terus dikembangkan oleh seorang seniman tersohor negara iaitu Abdullah Ariff. Beliau merupakan seorang guru dan penyelia lukisan di ’Anglo Chinese School’, di Pulau Pinang. Pada tahun 1949, belau menjadi pengerusi Kesatuan Kesenian Guru Pulau Pinang dan beliau merupakan ahli Penang Impressionist.
Seterusnya di Pulau Pinang juga pada tahun 1906, Chong Hua Confusius Pulau Pinang
memperkenalkan mata pelajaran seni kaligrafi dan anyaman yang diajar dalam bahasa Cina.
Pada tahun 1916 pula Laporan Winstedt dikeluarkan bagi memperkemas sistem pendidikan rendah di Tanah Melayu. Antara yang dinyatakan di dalam laporan tersebut ialah sekolah melayu dan maktab mengajar mata pelajaran lukisan dan subjek anyaman diletakkan di bawah subjek sains pertanian.
Seterusnya berkembanglah pendidikan seni di negara ini yang dipacu oleh institusi- institusi pendidikan, buku-buku, pertubuhan seni, dan dasar-dasar pendidikan. Antara intistusi pendidikan yang menawarkan pendidikan seni ialah sekolah-sekolah, Sultan Idris Training College (1922), maktab perguruan ilmu khas Kuala Lumpur(1960),institut Teknologi Mara (1967), Universiti Sains Malaysia,Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris pada tahun 1997(yang berasal dari Sultan Idris Training College- Maktab Perguruan Sultan Idris-Institut Perguruan Sultan Idris- Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris ), dan banyak lagi.
Buku-buku yang diperkenalkan bagi mengajar subjek seni antaranya ialah Art and Crafts oleh R.O Winstedt mengenai sejarah seni dan seni pertukangan, Pedoman Guru Penggal Pertama(1928) oleh Winstedt juga yang berkenaan pengajaran lukisan dan kerja tangan, buku Craft Work 1932 Third Year Practical ork for Senior Schools yang ditulis oleh Taylor dan Snell,

Buku Panduan Guru 1957 terbitan Kementerian Pelajaran Persekutuan tanah Melayu dan Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, The Art Paper(1958) oleh Marjorie Clark dan W.T. Swinbanks yang diterbitkan oleh Donald Moore dan seterusnya terdapat pelbagai buku lagi yang diterbitkan.
Pendidikan seni di negara kita juga dipacu oleh kewujudan pertubuhan dan institusi seni. Antaranya ialah Wednesday Art Group (1951) yang diasaskan oleh Peter Harris (seorang pengawas seni lukis di Kementerian Pelajaran), Majlis Kesenian Malaya (1952) yang diasaskan oleh Tan Sri Mubin Sheppard dan Datuk Zainal Abidin Hj. Abbas, Penang Teachers’ Art Circle, Malay Teachers Union (1954), Thursday Art Group (1957), Balai Seni Lukis Negara, dan lain- lain.
Dasar kerajaan juga memainkan peranan penting dalam perkembangan pendidikan seni misalnya Penyata Rahman Talib. Pihak yang memainkan peranan sebagai pusat perkembangan kurikulum yang bertanggungjawab menggubal kurikulum pendidikan seni adalah Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia.
Ini membuktikan bahawa mata pelajaran pendidikan seni adalah antara mata pelajaran yang penting sejak dahulu lagi terutama sekali sewaktu zaman penjajahan British kerana orang Barat memandang seni dalam ruang lingkup dan skop yang luas. Bagi mereka seni adalah sesuatu yang serius dan penting. Oleh itu, pemikiran seperti inilah yang harus diterapkan dan ditanam dalam minda masyarakat di Malaysia.
3.0 PENDIDIKAN SENI MASA KINI
3.1 PENGENALAN
Masyarakat harus sedar bahawa pendidikan seni bukan seperti dahulu. Pada masa kini, ruang lingkup dan cakupan dalam pengajaran seni adalah luas selari dengan arus kemodenan dunia. Penyesuaian pengajaran pendidikan seni di sekolah di negara kita dapat dilihat menerusi perubahan bagi nama mata pelajaran pendidikan seni itu sendiri. Bermula dengan nama Lukisan dan Pertukangan Tangan berubah kepada Lukisan dan Kerja Tangan, seterusnya Lukisan dan Kraf Tangan, kemudian dipermudah kepada Lukisan sahaja, seterusnya diubah kepada Pendidikan Seni dan kemudian diubah pula kepada Pendidikan Seni Visual sehingga kini.
Pendidikan Seni Visual menggantikan nama Pendidikan Seni yang terdahulu. Perubahan ini dirasakan lebih sesuai kerana dalam hubungan seni di sekolah, Pendidikan Seni Visual lebih menjurus kepada seni tampak atau visual, dan tidak merujuk kepada seni lain seperti seni muzik, seni sastera, seni tari dan seni mempertahankan diri.
Setiap perubahan nama yang dilakukan bukanlah secara membuta tuli sahaja. Akan tetapi melambangkan apa yang ingin disampaikan oleh mata pelajaran ini. Jika dilihat pada nama subjek pendidikan seni visual, apa yang ingin ditunjukkan di sini bahawa mata pelajaran ini mengajar bidang seni yang luas dan dapat ditatap dan dilihat oleh semua manusia
3.2 MATLAMAT PENGAJARAN PENDIDIKAN SENI VISUAL
Matlamat mata pelajaran Pendidikan Seni Visual sekolah adalah untuk melahirkan insan yang harmonis, kritis, kreatif dan produktif menerusi pemupukan asas seni visual. Kandungan kurikulum berupaya membantu murid meningkatkan rasa kesyukuran terhadap Tuhan, menghargai keindahan alam persekitaran, keindahan seni dan warisan bangsa serta dapat menyumbang ke arah pembangunan diri, keluarga, masyarakat dan negara, selaras dengan hasrat Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan.
3.3 APAKAH YANG DIAJAR DALAM PENDIDIKAN SENI VISUAL?
Sukatan pelajaran Pendidikan Seni Visual sekolah disusun bertujuan
melibatkan murid dalam pelbagai kegiatan seni. Kegiatan seni yang dijalankan berdasarkan empat bidang utama. Bidang-bidang tersebut ialah bidang menggambar, membuat corak dan rekaan, membentuk dan membuat binaan, dan mengenal kraf tradisional. Pengalaman seni ini adalah untuk memperkembang dan menyelaraskan persepsi dan konsepsi visual murid sebagai asas bagi menggalakkan pemikiran kritis dan kreatif. Pengalaman ini juga selaras dengan perkembangan peringkat kesediaan dan penerimaan murid dari segi sosioemosi, psikomotor dan mental yang merangkumi perasaan, koordinasi, manipulasi dan persepsi visual. Dengan mempelajari Pendidikan Seni Visual di sekolah, murid akan dapat menguasai beberapa pengetahuan dan kemahiran.
Antara pengetahuan yang dapat dimiliki murid ialah pengetahuan mengenai bahan, alat dan teknik yang digunakan dalam sebarang kegiatan seni. Murid juga akan mendapat pengetahuan mengenai sumber motif dalam persekitaran, kraf tradisional, unsur seni dan prinsip rekaan dalam pendidikan seni visual, proses pembuatan hasil seni, menyimpan maklumat atau dokumentasi, mengintegrasikan maklumat dan aplikasi komputer dalam kerja seni visual. Sementara kemahiran yang akan diperolehi murid pula ialah kemahiran memanipulasi bahan, alat dan teknik, mengaplikasi disiplin seni visual, berfikir secara kritis dan kreatif, berkomunikasi secara berkesan, membuat pilihan, membuat interpretasi, menggunakan teknologi bahan dan perkakasan.
Pendidikan Seni Visual bertujuan memberi peluang kepada murid memupuk minat, memperkembang keperibadian, memberi kesedaran dan kepekaan terhadap nilai-nilai kesenian dan alam sekitar serta kaitannya dengan mata pelajaran lain.
Murid di sekolah rendah pada keseluruhannya adalah kreatif, ekspresif dan aktif. Pendidikan Seni Visual memainkan peranan memperkembang sifat-sifat ini melalui persepsi visual, imaginasi dan daya pemikiran. Kegiatan pemikiran, penerokaan dan reka bentuk dalam pelbagai jenis seni visual akan membolehkan mereka menyatakan idea dan ekspresi diri.

Pengalaman ini penting kerana ia membantu murid membina keyakinan diri, membuat penilaian
dan mengenali cita rasanya sendiri.
Pendidikan Seni Visual sekolah rendah menyarankan strategi pembelajaran yang bersepadu dalam mata pelajaran ini dan antara mata pelajaran lain. Pengajaran dan pembelajaran akan lebih berkesan dengan aktiviti kemahiran berfikir secara kritis dan kreatif (KBKK). Murid digalakkan menyimpan rekod pengalaman pembelajaran dan hasil kerja sendiri. Amalan ini akan melatih murid membuat analisis, sintesis dan refleksi terhadap pembelajarannya untuk faedah sendiri.
Setiap murid mempunyai pelbagai kecerdasan seperti ruang visual, kinestetik, interpersonal dan intrapersonal. Sifat ini amat penting untuk membantu murid berkarya, berkomunikasi dan mengukuh koordinasi pancaindera secara seimbang. Proses ini menjadikan pembelajaran lebih berkesan dan bermakna.
4.0 ”MENGAPAKAH PELAJAR KEBANYAKKANNYA TIDAK MENGGEMARI
SUBJEK PENDIDIKAN SENI”
Namun begitu, mengapakah matapelajaran ini tidak diminati ramai oleh pelajar? Sedangkan ianya juga memainkan peranan penting pada era millenium masa kini. Seni masa kini bukanlah suatu bidang yang sempit lagi. Ianya meliputi bidang industri dan teknologi terutamanya dalam aspek reka cipta industri. Tetapi mengapa hal ini berlaku? Dalam masalah ini kita boleh kategorikan puncanya kepada beberapa faktor iaitu faktor pelajar itu sendiri, guru, persekitaran kelas pendidikan seni, ibu bapa dan juga kerajaan.
4.1 FAKTOR DIRI PELAJAR:
Seperti yang kita tahu, setiap orang mempunyai bakatataupun kecerdasan yang berbeza. Seperti yang dinyatakan oleh Howard Gardner dalam Teori Kepelbagaian Kecerdasannya. Ianya mengatakan bahawa terdapat sembilan kecerdasan bagi setiap manusia iaitu kecerdasan logik matematik, muzik, kinestetik, naturalis, verbal linguistik, interpersonal, intrapersonal, visual ruang dan eksistensialisme. Seni termasuk dalam kecerdasan ruang visual dan ada juga naturalis yang mana memerlukan kepekaan terhadap alam sekeliling.
Begitu juga halnya bagi pelajar. Setiap dari mereka mempunyai kemahiran yang berbeza-beza. Maka dengan itu minat mereka juga berbeza-beza. Tidak ramai yang berbakat dalam bidang seni. Ini kerana mungkin mereka mempunyai bakat dalam bidang lain dan lebih meminatinya berbanding seni..
Walaupun begitu, bakat seni ini bukanlah tidak boleh diasah dan dibina. Ianya memerlukan latihan yang gigih dan menganggap yang mereka boleh melakukannya. Apa yang menyebabkan pelajar tidak minat mata pelajaran seni ini ialah mereka tiada keyakinan terhadap diri sendiri.
Bukan dalam bidang seni sahaja, dalam bidang lain pun jika pelajar yakin yang mereka boleh
melakukannya maka mereka pasti dapat hasilnya.
Selain itu, sikap pelajar yang menganggap subjek pendidikan seni ini adalah leceh dan
menyusahkan. Ini kerana dalam tugasan pendidikan seni, pelajar dikehendaki membawa alatan
dan bahan-bahan untuk digunakan dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran (P & P). Kos penyediaan alatan dan bahan juga turut menjadi faktor. Malah ada yang beranggapan bahawa wang yang digunakan untuk membeli alatan seni adalah lebih baik digunakan untuk membeli barangan keperluan lain.
4.2 FAKTOR CARA PENGAJARAN GURU
Apa yang menyebabkan pelajar tidak meminati matapelajaran ini bukan sahaja disebabkan diri mereka, malah juga disebabkan oleh guru yang mengajar subjek tersebut. Dalam konteks ini ianya merujuk kepada guru yang terlalu tegas dalam mengajar subjek pendidikan seni. Tegas di sini bermaksud guru tersebut mahu pelajar menyiapkan tugasan mengikut acuannya. Guru tersebut mahu hasil kerja pelajar menjadi seperti yang dimahukan. Malah ada yang lebih teruk, terdapat tugasan pelajar yang tidak dihargai langsung. Misalnya, guru tersebut mengoyakkan dan mencampak kertas lukisan pelajar yang tidak menepati kehendaknya.
Maka dengan itu akan menyebabkan para pelajar tersebut takut untuk masuk ke kelas pendidikan seni kerana takut dimarahi oleh guru. Seterusnya mereka akan menganggap bahawa mereka tidak berbakat seni dan kemudiannya tidak akan meminati subjek tersebut.
Selain itu, faktor pengaruh guru subjek lain juga mempengaruhi minat pelajar terhadap subjek pendidikan seni. Terdapat guru yang memendang rendah subjek pendidikan seni. Malah menganggap pelajar yang mengambil subjek tersebut sebagai pelajar yang lemah dan memandang rendah terhadap mereka. Guru seperti ini juga sering mempengaruhi pelajar lain agar tidak mengambil subjek seni dan mengatakan subjek tersebut tiada masa depan. Maka dengan itu, di atas sifat naif sebagai pelajar, mereka terpengaruh dengan kata-kata guru tersebut.
4.3 FAKTOR PERSEKITARAN KELAS PENDIDIKAN SENI
Persekitaran kelas atau studio seni juga memberi pengaruh. Contohnya ialah kelas yang tidak mempunyai kemudahan untuk melakukan kerja-kerja seni. Dalam kelas seni, kemudahan yang harus ada antaranya ialah paip ( untuk membasuh berus cat), apron, alatan seni yang sukar diperolehi oleh pelajar (pahat ukir, mesin pemutar tanah liat dan lain-lain), dan sebagainya. Ketiadaan alatan ini akan menyebabkan pelajar sukar melakukan tugasan seni yang diarahkan oleh guru.
4.4 FAKTOR IBU BAPA
Selain itu, faktor ibu bapa juga memainkan peranan. Jika ibu bapa memberi sokongan kepada
pelajar untuk mengambil subjek pendidkan seni dan meminatinya, maka pelajar juga akan terus

meminati subjek tersebut. Tapi sebaliknya akan berlaku jika ibu bapa sendiri tidak
menggalakkan anak-anak mereka meminati subjek seni. Kebanyakkan ibu bapa lebih
memandang subjek sains dan matematik sebagai subjek yang boleh menjamin masa depan anak- anak mereka. Bagi mereka, seni bukanlah suatu subjek yang penting. Kerana bagi mereka seni itu hanyalah lukisan dan sesiapa yang meminati seni akan menjadi pelukis di masa hadapan.
Apa yang menyebabkan mereka berfikiran seperti itu ialah sejarah nama pendidikan seni itu sendiri. Ini kerana sewaktu era persekolahan mereka, subjek pendidikan seni dikenali dengan nama subjek’Lukisan’. Jadi, itulah yang menyebabkan mereka menganggap pendidikan seni itu hanya mengajar cara melukis sedangkan pendidikan seni pada masa kini adalah suatu bidang yang luas.
4.5 FAKTOR DASAR KERAJAAN
Dasar kerajaan juga turut menjadi faktor pelajar tidak meminati subjek pendidikan seni di
sekolah. Tindakan kerajaan yang terlalu menumpukan mata pelajaran sains, matematik dan
bahasa Inggeris telah menyebabkan para pelajar malahan guru dan ibu bapa menganggap subjek
tersebut sahaja yang dapat menjamin masa depan negara. Oleh itu mereka tidak menganggap seni sebagai subjek yang penting. Hal ini terbawa-bawa ke dalam P&P, di mana pelajar menunjukkan sikap tidak minat tehadap subjek pendidikan seni malah sanggup memonteng kelas seni.
5.0 CARA MENGATASI MASALAH PELAJAR TIDAK MEMINATI SUBJEK
PENDIDIKAN SENI
5.1 MEMBERI PENERANGAN MENGENAI BIDANG KERJA YANG BERKAITAN
DENGAN SENI
Dalam dunia yang semakin maju dan mencabar, kita perlu sentiasa menyesuaikan diri dengan situasi semasa. Begitu juga bagi mata pelajaran pendidikan seni. Sukatan pelajaran pendidikan seni masa kini diubah dan disesuaikan dengan keperluan arus kemajuan dan kemodenan selaras dengan keperluan bidang pekerjaan masa kini. Tujuannya adalah bagi memberi input(ilmu) terkini dan bermanfaat kepada pelajar yang mana dapat mendedahkan kepada mereka keperluan seni dalam bidang pekerjaan. Melalui ilmu yang diberikan, diharapkan pelajar dapat mengaplikasikannya di alam pekerjaan.
Seni amat penting peranannya pada masa kini. Terdapat banyak bidang kerja yang memerlukan seni dalam pelaksanaannya. Antaranya ialah bidang seni bina, industri, animasi, pengiklanan, perfileman, grafik komputer, dan banyak lagi. Oleh kerana itu pihak kerajaan melalui Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia menyesuaikan sukatan pelajaran dengan bidang kerja masa kini bagi menyediakan pelajar ke arah alam pekerjaan
5.2 MENYESUAIKAN SUKATAN PELAJARAN DAN SOALAN PEPERIKSAAN
PENDIDIKAN SENI VISUAL DENGAN SITUASI MASA KINI
Soalan-soalan peperiksaan bagi subjek pendidikan seni juga disesuaikan. Misalnya, pada tahun 2004, pelajaran Tingkatan Lima yang mengambil subjek pendidikan seni perlu membuat kerja kursus menghasilkan produk pembungkusan bagi kertas 3 pendidikan seni visual Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia. Ini bertujuan mendedahkan kepada para pelajar kepada bidang industri. Pada tahun 2006 pula, para pelajar Tingkatan 6 Atas yang mengambil subjek pendidikan seni mendapat tugasan pilihan bagi kertas 3 pendidikan seni visual. Antara tugasannya ialah menghasilkan reka bentuk dalaman ruang legar sebuah syarikat menggunakan perisian komputer. Tujuannya adalah bagi mendedahkan para pelajar kepada bidang seni reka bentuk dalaman dan seni grafik.
5.3 PIHAK SEKOLAH MENGADAKAN BULAN APRESIASI SENI
Pihak sekolah pula boleh memainkan peranan iaitu dengan mengadakan minggu atau bulan apresiasi seni. Di mana pelbagai aktiviti mengenai seni di adakan sepanjang bulan tersebut. Anatra aktiviti yang boleh dijalankan ialah bengkel kesenian bagi setiap bidang seni seperti seni batik, ukiran, catan, arca, reka bentuk industri dan lain-lain. Pertandingan-pertandingan kesenian juga boleh diadakan bagi menarik minat para pelajar.
5.4 PIHAK KERAJAAN MENYEDIAKAN LEBIH BANYAK PELUANG PEKERJAAN
BERKAITAN SENI
apabila kerajaan memperbanyakkan peluang pekerjaan berkaitan seni, maka sudut pandangan masyarakat yang terdiri daripada ibu bapa dan juga pelajar itu sendiri akan berubah. Mereka akan memandang seni juga adalah satu subjek yang dapat menjamin masa depan.
6 .0 KESIMPULAN
Kesimpulannya, pendidikan seni pada masa kini adalah satu mata pelajaran yang sangat penting sepertimana subjek-subjek lain terutama sekali di dalam dunia yang semakin mencabar pada masa kini. Seni diaplikasikan dalam setiap bidang ilmu dan bidang kerja. Sepertimana yang dikatakan oleh Walter Gropius,”seni seharusnya memberi faedah dan berfungsi kepada
kehidupan seharian dan masyarakat. Bukan sekadar untuk menyatakan hasrat diri”.
Maksudnya antara fungsi seni adalah memberi manfaat kepada manusia iaitu dengan menggabungkan seni halus (tradisional) dengan seni gunaan untuk kehidupan seharian. Ilmu dalam bidang seni yang dipelajari dapat membantu pelajar dalam hidup mereka iaitu dengan mengaplikasikannya dalam hidup mereka.

PRINSIP ASAS REKA BENTUK LANDSKAP

Dewayne L. Ingram²

Landscaping combines elements of art and science to create a functional, aesthetically pleasing extension of indoor living to the outdoors. One initial purpose of landscape design is to blend man's technology (house or building) into the natural surroundings. To work toward a desirable landscape design, the landscape horticulturist must have a working knowledge of art elements and design principles. This publication is intended for the commercial landscaper with little or no training in the use of these basic principles. This publication is not a complete landscape design text.

ELEMENTS OF ART

Elements of art include but are not limited to color, line, form, texture and scale. These elements are never independent of each other, but we will discuss their individual natures before considering the interactions.

Color variation can best be explained by use of a color wheel ( Figure 1 ). Primary colors are red, blue and yellow. Orange, green and violet are called secondary colors because they are combinations of two primary colors. For example, yellow and red are combined to yield orange. Tertiary colors are the fusion of one primary and one secondary color. These colors would be between primary and secondary colors.

Figure 1.

Tint refers to a light value and is accomplished by adding white to the pure color on the color wheel, while shade is a dark value and is created by adding black to the pure color on the color wheel. Black, white and grey are neutrals and are compatible with any color. Light colors and tints tend to attract attention as do bright, vivid colors.

Colors are combined into color schemes for practical applications. Three basic color schemes are monochromatic, analogous and complementary. A monochromatic color scheme consists of different tints and shades of one color and is seldom achieved in its pure form in the landscape. An example of an incomplete monochromatic color scheme would include white and pink flowers with a background of a dark pink and red brick house.
Analogous color schemes combine colors which are adjacent or side-by-side on the color wheel. An analogous color scheme could include green, blue-green, green-blue, blue and violet blue. This color scheme could be achieved by varying the foliage color from green to blue-green or by using pyracantha with orange-red berries against a red brick house.
Complementary color schemes combine colors directly across the color wheel. For example, red and green would be complementary colors. A complementary color scheme may be achieved by using plants with green foliage against a red brick house.
It is possible to have varying color schemes in one area of the landscape as the seasons change. White and pink azaleas flowers can yield a monochromatic color scheme with a red brick house. The green azalea foliage would produce a complementary color for the red brick during the summer. Pyracantha berries would be an analogous color to the red brick in the fall. The landscape designer should consider the color changes throughout the year when developing a landscape plan.
Colors can be used to visually change distance perspective. Warm colors and light tints like red, orange, yellow and white advance an object or area toward the observer. These colors and tints placed near the foundation of a house would make the house appear closer to the street. Cool colors and deep shades like blue, green and black recede and can be used to make the house appear farther from the street. Cool colors are restful while warm colors express action and are best used in filtered light or against a green or dark background.
Color can be used to direct attention in the landscape. Due to this strong characteristic, color should be used carefully. When color is used for this purpose, consideration must be given to year-round color not just to seasonal color. Consideration may also be given to the time of day when this color will be enjoyed. White or light tints could be used to create interest on a patio. Dark colors would add little to family enjoyment of this area as the daylight hours passed.
Line is related to eye movement or flow. The concept and creation of line depends upon the purpose of the design and existing patterns. In the overall landscape, line is inferred by bed arrangement and the way these beds fit or flow together ( Figure 2 ). Line is also created vertically by changes in plant height and the height of tree and shrub canopies. Line in a small area such as an entrance or privacy garden is created by branching habits of plants, arrangement of leaves and/or sequence of plant materials.

Figure 2.

Straight lines tend to be forceful, structural and stable and direct the observer's eye to a point faster than curved lines. Curved or free-flowing lines are sometimes described as smooth, graceful or gentle and create a relaxing, progressive, moving and natural feeling.

Form and line are closely related. Line is considered usually in terms of the outline or edge of objects, whereas form is more encompassing. The concept of form is related also to the size of an object or area. Form can be discussed in terms of individual plant growth habits or as the planting arrangement in a landscape.
Plant forms include upright, oval, columnar, spreading, broad spreading, weeping, etc. ( Figure 3 ). Form is basically the shape and structure of a plant or mass of plants. Structures also have form and should be considered as such when designing the area around them.

Figure 3.

Texture describes the surface quality of an object than can be seen or felt. Surfaces in the landscape includes buildings, walks, patios, groundcovers and plants. The texture of plants differs as the relationships between the leaves, twigs and branches differ ( Figure 4 ). Coarse, medium or fine could be used to describe texture but so could smooth, rough, glossy or dull.

Figure 4.

Scale refers to the size of an object or objects in relation to the surroundings. Size refers to definite measurements while scale describes the size relationship between adjacent objects. The size of plantings and buildings compared on the human scale must be considered ( Figure 5 ).

Figure 5.

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

Color, line, form, texture and scale are tools which are used in combinations to adjust design principles. Design principles include unity, balance, transition, focalization, proportion, rhythm, repetition and simplicity. All these principles interact to yield the intended design.

Unity is obtained by the effective use of components in a design to express a main idea through consistent style. Unity is emphasized by consistency of character between units in the landscape. Use of elements to express a specific theme within units creates harmony. Unity can be achieved by using mass planting and repetition.
Unity means that all parts of the composition or landscape go together; they fit. A natural feeling evolves when each activity area belongs to and blends with the entire landscape. Everything selected for a landscape must complement the central scheme and must, above all, serve some functional purpose.
Balance in design refers to the equilibrium or equality of visual attraction ( Figure 6 ). Symmetrical balance is achieved when one side of the design is a mirror image of the other side. There is a distinct dividing line between the two sides. Equal lines, forms, textures or colors are on each side of a symmetrical design.

Figure 6.

Asymmetrical balance uses different forms, colors and textures to obtain balance of visual attraction. These opposing compositions on either side of the central axis create equal attraction. For example, mass may be opposed by color or linear dimension by height.

The landscape designer must skillfully manipulate the design elements to create asymmetrical balance. The central axis must be predetermined and then developed by the elements of art and other principles of design discussed in this publication.
Transition is gradual change. Transition in color can be illustrated by the radial sequence on the color wheel (monochromatic color scheme) previously discussed. Transition can be obtained by the arrangement of objects with varying textures, forms, or sizes in a logical sequential order. For example, coarse to medium to fine textures, round to oval to linear structural forms, or cylindrical to globular to prostrate plants. An unlimited number of schemes exist by combining elements of various size, form, texture and color to create transition ( Figure 7 ). Remember, transition refers to the 3-dimensional perspective of composition, not just the flat or facial view.

Figure 7.

It is possible to use transition to extend visual dimensions beyond actual dimensions. For example, radical lines in the private area of the landscape can be used to enframe and/or focalize a lake scene. Transition of plant materials along these lines can make the scene become a part of the landscape ( Figure 8 ). Transition from taller to shorter plants with textural changes from coarse to fine along focal lines emphasizes the beauty of a lake scene. Transition from shorter to taller plants and from fine to coarse textures would enframe the scene and make it appear closer, like a painting on a wall. Generally, transition assists in the gradual movement of a viewer's eye to the design and within it.

Figure 8.

Proportion refers to the size of parts of the design in relation to each other and to the design as a whole. One large towering oak may compliment an office building but would probably dwarf a single story residence ( Figure 9 ). A three-foot pool would be lost in a large open lawn but would fit beautifully into a small private area. And of course, a colossal fountain would dominate a private garden but could enhance a large city plaza.

Figure 9.

Proportion in landscape design usually relates to people and their activities. The desired size relationships of components in a design should pose little problem for the designer who considers this principle routinely in systematic thought processes.

Rhythm is achieved when the elements of a design create a feeling of motion which leads the viewer's eye through or even beyond the designed area. Tools like color schemes, line and form can be repeated to attain rhythm in landscape design. Rhythm reduces confusion in the design.
Focalization involves the leading of visual observation toward a feature by placement of this feature at the vanishing point between radial or approaching lines. Straight radial lines as in Figure 10 create a strong focalization when compared to curved lines. The viewer's eye is quickly forced along straight lines to a focal point. Generally, weaker or flowing lines of focalization are desirable in the residential landscape. Transition of plants or other objects along these lines can strengthen or weaken the focalization. Curved lines are stronger when curved toward each other than when curved outward. Indirect focalization is created by lines curved in the same direction. Focalization can be adjusted by plant materials along the lines to create symmetrical or asymmetrical focalization. Asymmetrical focalization is indirect while symmetrical focalization is more direct, creating stronger focalization.

Figure 10.

Since focalization can be used to direct attention to a point, traffic in an area is usually directed to that point. Therefore, focalization could be used to direct traffic in a garden area. Guidance of view toward features of commercial, aesthetic or cultural value may attract the eye of the unaware without conscious effort.

Repetition refers to the repeated use of features like plants with identical shape, line, form, texture and/or color. Too much repetition creates monotony but when used effectively can lead to rhythm, focalization or emphasis. Unity can be achieved better by no other means than repetition. Think of repetition as not having too much variety in the design which creates a cluttered or busy appearance.
Simplicity goes hand-in-hand with repetition and can be achieved by elimination of unnecessary detail. Too much variety or detail creates confusion of perception. Simplicity is the reduction of a design to its simplest, functional form, which avoids unnecessary cost and maintenance.

STEPS IN DEVELOPING A LANDSCAPE DESIGN

The benefits of an organized system in developing a landscape design are tremendous. As with most endeavors, the level of efficiency relative to time input is greatly increased with an organized approach. The game plan for the landscape designer should follow a sequence such as the one presented here:

Steps In Design

1. Develop a plot plan.
2. Conduct a site analysis.
3. Assess family needs and desires.
4. Locate activity areas.
5. Design activity areas.
6. Plant selection and placement.

Develop a Plot Plan

It is difficult to visualize certain aspects of design without putting it to scale on paper. The designer should think with drawings or sketches and make the mistakes on paper not on the landscape site. The plot plan should consist of 1) accurate house placement on the lot, 2) accurate lot and house dimensions with window and door placement and 3) existing driveways and/or walks. It saves a lot of time if the customer has an accurate plat of the house and lot and a house floor plan with outside dimensions. These plans maybe secured from the builder, developer or county or city property records. Although the floor plan scale will probably be different from the scale you use, it will still be easier to convert the scale than to physically measure the house, lot, etc.

Once the house position on the lot has been determined, this should be drawn to a predetermined scale on tracing paper placed over grid paper. Commonly, 1 inch equals 5 feet or 1 inch equals 10 feet, but you may choose another scale based upon your drawing equipment and project dimensions. Recommended drawing equipment includes: drafting pencils, T-square, scaled rulers, triangle, art gum eraser, drafting tape, grid paper (8 or 10 squares to the inch) and tracing or drafting paper. The designer must have a firm, steady working surface.

Conduct a Site Analysis

A complete survey of the customer's property is essential. The plot plan will assist you in organizing the information from the site analysis. A thorough site analysis can save you time and money. Existing vegetation, natural factors and features, views, noise levels, utility placement, easements/setback lines and primary architectural features of the house should be noted.

Existing plants should be examined. Tree condition and placement should be recorded. Trees on adjoining property that would affect shade patterns on the customer's lot should also be surveyed. This information is essential to designers, especially since it is their responsibility to blend this home into the natural or existing setting, or to create a setting to be functional and to complement the structure. Shrubs, groundcovers and grasses should also be examined as to their condition and potential use.
The landscape horticulturalist may also be involved in protecting existing vegetation during construction. It may be desirable to block vehicular traffic from areas close to valuable trees.
Natural factors and features of a landscape include house orientation, land form, soil conditions, rainfall distribution, seasonal wind pattern and micro-climatic conditions. House orientation affects the exposure of various portions of the house to the sun ( Figure 11 ). This knowledge is essential so the designer can provide shade in important spots and locate activity areas appropriately. For example, a southeastern exposure is generally the most comfortable spot year-round while a western slope will be hot in the summer and cold in the winter.

Figure 11.

Land form refers to slope or land elevation changes. It determines surface water drainage patterns and is essential knowledge for the landscape horticulturalist in developing functional and aesthetically pleasing landscapes.

Soil characteristics will determine selection and placement of plants. Soil pH, nutrient and waterholding capacity and drainage should be considered. Native fertility levels and soil characteristics may be indicated by existing vegetation. Turkey oaks on the property usually indicate dry, infertile soil. Native cypress trees usually indicate poorly drained soils exist or did exist in that area.
Rainfall distribution can be determined on a regional basis. Periods of heavy rainfall can magnify the problems of shallow soils or a hardpan resulting in unwanted standing water. Sometimes these conditions may require the engineering of drainage modifications by some type of tiles or pipe. Often the conditions simply require careful plant selection.
Predominate wind directions differ with the area of the state, the season and the time of day. Where the wind direction differs in summer and winter, plantings can be arranged to block the cold winter winds from a patio and direct summer breezes into this same area ( Figure 12 ). While conducting the site analysis, be sure to look for existing wind breaks provided by plants and structures on the property or on adjacent property.

Figure 12.

All of these factors interact to create micro-climates. This means that the conditions in a isolated spot may differ considerably from the conditions in another area of the landscape. The designer must consider those variations in order to "fine-tune" the landscape plan and plant selection.

Views should be identified that are to be preserved or accented. Likewise, less desirable views must be considered so screening can be planned. Views and activities 30 feet (9 m) or so from the property line must be surveyed. During the site analysis, views should be observed from inside the house to outside and from outside to inside the house ( Figure 13 ). Observe the neighbors' property from positions on the customer's lot and view the customer's property from the neighbors' lots if possible. The house should also be observed at multiple angles from the street. Pictures from an instant camera can be helpful in reminding the designer of specific views when sitting back at the drawing table.

Figure 13.

Surrounding distractions must be identified. You may need to question neighbors or the property owner about these factors. Record a noise source like roads, factories, saw mills, etc. and plot the direction and distance of the source. The time of day for peak noise levels can be important as well. It may be necessary to return to the site during such a period. Other distractions could include glare or odors.

Utility lines may be on poles or underground. Locate the position of these on the plot plan. Also locate the electrical meter on the house, the air-conditioner unit and water outlets. Consider the position of television and telephone cables, water lines and sewage lines, or a septic tank and field line. Television cable companies and the telephone company will usually locate their service lines accurately. However, these services must be requested in advance.
Architectural style of the house is of primary importance. Specific details of interest must be identified during the site analysis. Things like the height of windows, the height of house corners from the ground and overhang widths should be considered. Is the house guttered or should it be? If so, locate the outlets. Notice major traffic problems so proper access and movement can be provided.

Assess Family Needs

A landscape should be an outdoor extension of indoor living areas. It should be functional and provide space for family activities. Before the designer can create such an environment, knowledge of certain family characteristics is essential.

The questions used in the form at the end can be among those asked of the customer.

Locate Activity Areas

Once the family needs have been determined, areas for these activities must be located on the property. Their placement should be considered in terms of the house plan and in relation to other activities in and adjacent to the property. These activity areas could include a public area, entrance, living area, quiet zone, service and work area, or vegetable or cut-flower garden plot.

These areas should be defined on the plot plan or maybe on a piece of tracing paper laid over the plot plan. Actually sketch the outline of these areas ( Figure 14 ). Be sure to include all needed activity areas and draw them to scale and to the size necessary to accommodate the activity, yet still fit within the property lines.

Figure 14.

Two major considerations for the placement of areas must be emphasized. 1) Place outdoor areas in relation to indoor activity areas ( Figure 14 ). The outdoor living or entertaining area should be an extension of the family or living room in the house. The service area and work area may be an extension of the laundry room, kitchen or garage. 2) Arrange areas relative to the activities in each and activities on adjoining property. For example, do not position the children's play area beside the quiet zone. Always leave a clear view to the children's play area from some identified observation point like the kitchen window.

Design Activity Areas

A systematic approach should be taken in designing activity areas. First, determine the objectives of the design and establish the general type of plan -- formal or natural. Plan for structural needs, consider land form modifications, determine traffic flow, develop bed form and then specify plant materials.

Structural needs should be considered first. If a storage building is needed, a level spot and access must be planned. Required access may mean a path or limited vehicular access to haul in firewood, etc.
Land form information derived from the site analysis can be used now. Do surface water drainage problems exist? If so, determine how to correct them. Engineering and legal considerations are involved in major surface water drainage problems. Seemingly simple solutions may affect someone else's surface drainage. Consider grassed waterways, paved waterways or possibly drainage tiles. Drainage problems may not exist but land form modifications could be used to create interest, or help block undesirable views or noise. Care should be taken not to create surface water drainage problems with land form modifications.
Existing land form may have slopes which will erode. Existing slope or steepness will determine what actions should be taken. Ground covers may be the answer for long, gentle slopes while terraces with railroad ties or blocks may solve the problem of a short, steep bank. Grass should not be put on slopes greater than 1:6 (1 foot of rise per 6 feet of run) because of maintenance safety. Other ground cover materials will probably hold a 1:2 or 1:3 slope. Bark mulch should not be placed on a slope greater than 1:10.
Bed form, traffic flow and plant selection and placement utilize art elements and design principles previously discussed. These can best be covered as the development of specific areas is discussed.
Public Area. The public area is the portion of the residential landscape the public sees and uses. The current trend toward smaller residential lots encourages the development of some of the front yard for family living. The public area contains the driveway, parking, walks, open space and entrance area. The purpose of the public area is to enhance the home, provide comfortable access and lead the visitor to the entrance.
Foundation planting is not all of landscaping but can be a vital part of functional landscape design. Too often foundation planting is overdone and left to stand along. History reveals that foundation plantings were used to block the view of raised foundations and to slow cold air movement under the house ( Figure 15 ). Although these needs do not often exist today, some landscapers and homeowners think it is a must to cover every linear foot of the foundation with plants.

Figure 15.

The objectives of foundation planting are to focalize the main entrance, compliment the architectural style of the house and to break long continuous lines of the house and blend it into the surroundings. The designer should avoid competing elements which detract from the main entrance and the house in general. An isolated bed in the middle of open lawn area is one of these competing elements. Plants should be selected which can easily be maintained to proper scale with the house. This is probably the most common failure of foundation plantings.

A general rule of thumb is that the height of plants in the foundation planting should not exceed two-thirds the height of the wall at house corners ( Figure 16 ). Generally, plant height should not exceed the height of a line extending from the doorway to this imaginary point at the house corner. This does not mean every house should have plantings this high.

Figure 16.

Balance in landscape design is not always necessary. Imbalance may be used with architectural features of some houses to create desirable, interesting effects. However, when balance is suggested, it should be achieved.

Symmetrical balance has been overdone in residential landscape design. This approach seems formal and monotonous ( Figure 17 ). Asymmetrical balance is often more desirable for residential landscapes as balance is created without monotony. Size is balance by mass and texture in this example. Architectural style may dictate the use of symmetry or asymmetry. Driveways, parking and walks must be functional. They must be positioned to provide easy access from points of entry onto the property to the entrance of the house. Too often walks are placed from the street to the front door with no consideration of access from the driveway to the front door. Many times a walk dividing the front yard is not necessary and may detract from the house.

Figure 17.

Walk and driveway surfaces should be selected based on traffic demands. Low traffic walks and driveways may be surfaced with less expensive materials such as bark or gravel, but walks and driveways with high traffic demands should have a hard surface.

Walks accommodating two people abreast should be at least 4 feet (1.2m) wide ( Figure 18 ). Walks for one person should be at least 30 inches (74cm) wide (Figure 18). A straight driveway for one car should be at least 8 feet (2.4m) wide while 14 feet (4.3m) is required for two cars side-by-side. Circle drives should have a minimum inside radius of 18 feet (5.5m) and an outside radius of 32 feet (9.8m) with a surface width of 14 feet (4.3m). Steps should be designed with human comfort as the top priority. Generally, a taller step, one with greater rise, should have a longer tread area. A handy rule of thumb states that twice the rise in inches plus the tread should equal 26 or 27 ( Figure 19 ). Ramps for wheelchair access are necessary or desired in some residential landscapes. The average wheelchair user can negotiate a 5 percent gradient independently and the minimum width is 3 feet (90cm). The bottom and top approach to a ramp should be clear and level for a distance of at least 5 feet (1.5cm).

Figure 18.

Figure 19.

Driveways must be wide enough at the street to allow cars to merge easily into the flow of traffic. The higher the average speed of the street traffic the wider the mouth of the drive should be.

The view of street traffic from the driveway entrance should not be blocked. Large plants placed along the driveway entrance create a dangerous situation. Plants on the outside of a curve in a driveway or highway aid the driver by giving definition to the traffic flow. Make sure such a planting blends into the total design. A plant screen on the inside of a curve in a driveway or highway is hazardous because it blocks the driver's view of the road ahead.
Trees can be used in the public area to soften lines, provide shade and enframe the house ( Figure 20 ). Also trees placed in the backyard can provide an excellent background for the house as viewed from the street. Vertical lines of many houses can be effectively softened by a small tree planted in conjunction with other plants at a corner. Tree shape is very important. A low-branched, rounded tree softens this line while a slender upright tree only accents the line. Trees with a lot of exposed trunk, like a sabal palm, will also accent and not soften these vertical lines.

Figure 20.

A long low house (ranch style) can be made to appear taller in relation to its length by proper placement of plant materials ( Figure 21 ). Larger trees planted as a background break the horizontal roof line. Smaller trees spaced a few feet from the ends or corners of the house would also help the house seem taller in relation to its length.

Figure 21.

A tall slender house seems longer when few or no trees are placed in the background but medium-sized, rounded trees are positioned on either side of the house ( Figure 21 ). Plants placed near these trees should be shorter and decrease in height the farther from the house they are positioned. This planting design effectively created a sloping line to replace the strong vertical line of the house. The house then appears longer in relation to its height.

Trees positioned for shade must be carefully located. The designer must learn what area needs shade, and during what time of the day and what seasons the shade is needed. This information will determine where to plant the trees relative to sun angle, sun direction and areas to be shaded.
A moderate amount of open area in the front yard can create the feeling of a large expansive area that allows the observer's eye to move from the street to the planted areas. The planted areas can then direct the observer's eye to the appropriate place. Some family game activities need not be in the private living area and can be accommodated by open portions of the public area.
Entrance. The entrance should be an area of transition between outdoors and indoors. Considerable detail should be given to the planning and maintenance of this area. This is true because a visitor is close to this area and moving slowly or actually standing still. Therefore there is time to view this area and a favorable impression can be developed before a person enters the house.
Plantings in the public area should focus attention to the entrance. This means there should be no doubt in the visitor's mind where to enter the house. If the house is approached commonly from more than one direction, the focalization of the entrance form these different perspectives must be considered. This focalization is achieved through repetition of plant masses ( Figure 22 ). Transition of plant form, color and texture and the bed lines can help direct attention.

Figure 22.

Focusing attention toward the entrance is not the same as accenting the entrance or access area. Plantings, like liriope, along both sides of a walk in the open lawn only draws attention to or accents the walk. These do not direct attention to the entrance, but actually distract the observer's attention from the entrance area to the walk itself.

There should be a feeling of intimacy or comfort with limited exposure when a person is standing in the entrance area. Security and the need to focus the entrance may dictate the extent of exposure in this area. In a outdoor public area for a larger home, an extensive entrance garden may be appropriate. Be careful to keep this area in scale with the house and its surroundings. These areas are sometimes called "good night" areas, because they provide an effective transition between the indoors and the vehicle parking outside.
Living area. Elements in the living area, primarily the backyard, depend upon the desires and needs of the family. These desires and needs were determined during the interview outlined previously. This area must be clearly organized to avoid wasted space. Living area space must be organized based on the activities to be included there. Consideration is given to the house design, land form and house orientation as they relate to space organization.
Private area(s) are usually a part of the living area. A private area may be for reading and meditation as an extension of the master bedroom or it could be an area for small group conversation as an extension of the living room. A private area may be placed close to the house or in an isolated corner of the landscape.
Space and equipment for children's play are required in many landscapes. The play area should be an integral part of the landscape. Enclosure of this area may be required, based on age of children, size of area and activities on adjacent property. The permanency of the play area depends upon the ages of the children and family plans. If the children are 8 to 10 and no other children are expected, the area may be temporary and plans for future modification should be suggested to the customer.
The children's play area may require some open space. This space may also serve for adult entertaining. Planning for multi-use space of this sort can lead to high space utilization and efficiency.
It is often important to provide a degree of privacy in the living area. Fencing, walls or plants used for this purpose can also block views, enhance views and direct or block prevailing winds.
Structural features in the living area could include a patio, deck, terrace, water feature and/or garden and workshop. A patio used as an extension of the family room should be at least 12 feet by 15 feet (4m by 5m). The selection of surface material is based on land slope, expected use rate, style of the house and the amount of funds available. Raised wooden decks are suited for sloping land and are cooled by air flow beneath them. Brick and sand is less expensive than brick and cement and if installed properly can be quite durable. Stained concrete and concrete with an aggregate surface are also alternative surfaces for patios.
A water feature could be a swimming pool, spa, or a simple reflection pool. Moving water creates a secure, relaxed feeling in a private area and is often overlooked for this use. Expense of these items is often the limiting factor.
The designer should be concerned with traffic flow and circulation in the living area. Each unit in this area should be a part of the whole and contribute to the overall circulation pattern. This is especially true in the areas where entertaining is planned. Areas of limited access, like service areas, may not be a part of this circulation pattern. Circulation refers to the movement of people's eyes and then their bodies through a specific pattern in the landscape. For example, a quiet sitting area located in the back corner of the lot is hidden from view of the patio ( Figure 23 ). Proper bed arrangement and plant selection will lead the observer to one focalization point in the landscape. The person, now located at that point sees another focalization point and so on until the sitting area is seen. This systematic method moves people from one point to another until the desired circulation and traffic flow patterns are created. Walt Disney World is a working example of planned traffic flow by this technique.

Figure 23.

Service Area. The outdoor service area is an extension of the indoor service rooms like the kitchen, utility room and/or garage. It is a part of the overall design, but is usually screened from most parts of the living and public areas. Access from the house and from other parts of the landscape will be necessary. Sometimes vehicular access is desired. The family interview previously discussed, will determine what must be included in this area. The amount of space available and number and type of activities to be included will determine the required size.

A service area could include tool storage, work space, clothesline, garden supplies storage, trash cans, firewood and a vegetable or cut-flower garden. It is possible to have service functions in two or more locations in the landscape.
Definition and Separation of Areas. Once the activity areas have been located and ideas for development of these areas have been formulated, the need for separation of these areas is often apparent. Space can be the medium for separation when working with a larger piece of property. Most often some other type of separation is required due to the number of separate activities planned in a small area. Sometimes it is only necessary to define space with a rail fence, etc., rather than providing a complete screen or barrier. Spaces can also be separated by changes in elevation. Planters can separate areas and can be a very attractive means of defining space.
A visual screen from one direction without being a physical barrier fits the bill for some situations. Groupings of plants can be positioned to give a visual block in one direction while allowing air flow into the activity area as previously shown in Figure 12 .
The required height of a screen depends upon the elevation of the view to be screened. A screen for privacy from the neighbor's two story window will require a taller screen than one for blocking the view of a neighbor down in the valley ( Figure 24 ). Generally, a screen should be placed as close as possible to the item to be screened.

Figure 24.

Plant materials provide an inexpensive screen with color and interest. They generally require more space than fences and it takes time for them to grow to mature size. Fences provide an immediate screen, occupy little space and are quite expensive. The budget and available space will be the determining factors in this decision.

Screens can be combinations of raised land form, ground covers, small shrubs, large shrubs, and trees to give a complete or strong barrier. This combined planting is especially suited for noise abatement where the lot adjoins a busy public street ( Figure 25 ).

Figure 25.

Plant Selection and Placement

Plant selection is the last step in the design process. Up until this point, plant form, texture, color and size have been visualized, but now a name must be assigned to each plant. Plants are selected on the basis of climatic adaptability to the microclimate of the location, plant architecture and availability.

No matter how well a plant meets the physical characteristics for a location, if it is not adaptable to the conditions there, it will fail. These microclimate conditions include sun intensity and duration, soil conditions, rainfall, air circulation and temperature. Some plants perform better in partial or full shade than in full sun. The length of daily exposure to a particular light level also influences plant responses. Soil pH, soluble salts level and drainage properties influence plant adaptability greatly. Plants can be selected to tolerate varied soil conditions, but the designer must have a working knowledge of available plant materials.
Some locations in a landscape may be characterized by little or no air movement. Plants susceptible to mites, scales and other insects will usually be attacked more severely in areas with poor air circulation. Also locations in the landscape differ as to the maximum or minimum temperatures and daily fluctuation between these extremes. Plants can be selected to tolerate one or more of these conditions.
Plant architecture consists of form, size, texture and color. Plant form is classified as columnar, upright, spreading, broad spreading and prostrate. Plants should be selected on the basis of their mature size or a size at which they can be maintained easily. Texture is referred to as fine, medium or coarse. It is determined by branching habit, leaf size and shape, leaf arrangement, leaf color and leaf surface texture (dull or glossy). Plant color is determined by the foliage, flowers and/or fruits. Knowledge of a plant's seasonal color variations is essential.
Landscape designers must also be aware of insect and disease problems for plants they expect to include in a plan. Desirable plants are those resistant to or tolerant of pests like mites, scale, nematodes, borers, root rots, powdery mildew, wilts, galls, blights, and leaf spots. Plants in some locations must be tolerant of human abuse, air pollution and animals.
Usually, plants should be spaced with consideration to their mature size. Plants in large areas or groups are generally spaced to cover an area in 3 to 5 years. Plants should be spaced far enough from the house so that there is adequate air circulation near the house. Generally, space plants from the house by at least the distance of the plant radius at maturity. Spacing plants too close to the house is a common mistake.
Minimal Maintenance Considerations. Maintenance cannot be avoided, but it can be minimized. Even the perfectly designed and installed landscape will fail if maintenance fails. However, many maintenance problems are designed into landscapes.
Complex designs usually require more maintenance. Simplicity can be achieved by avoiding unnecessary detail. Limit the number of plant species and create well-defined planted areas by not scattering plants throughout open areas.
Design the appropriate size of maintained area and arrange plants in groups of like species to create a mass effect. Tree beds can eliminate trimming, reduce lawn mower damage to tree trunks and increase the speed of mowing. Edging of beds creates a sharp clean line and reduces maintenance requirements.
Make sure bed lines encompassing a lawn area meet at angles greater than 90 degrees. Walk, driveway and patio surfaces that are in grassed areas should be above the ground level. Avoid improper plant selection, spacing and installation that can cause maintenance headaches.

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Footnotes

1. This document is CIR536, one of a series of the Environmental Horticulture Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Original publication date June 1991. Reviewed October 2003. Visit the EDIS Web Site at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.

2. Dewayne L. Ingram, former professor and extension horticulturalist, Environmental Horticulture Department, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville FL 32611.

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